Explaining patterns and trends in health Essay

There are numerous approaches to quantify examples of sick wellbeing; these incorporate mortality, grimness, wellbeing occasions, infection occurrence, ailment pervasiveness and wellbeing reconnaissance. These are; Morbidity Rates is what number of people experience the ill effects of the infection at a given time. Death Rates is what number of people pass on from experiencing the malady and wellbeing occasions people monitoring medical problems, for example, the NHS giving data about the fundamental concern. Malady occurrence is the opportunity of the individual being analyzed. Infection Prevalence is the means by which the extent of the populace is experiencing the sickness. Wellbeing Surveillance distinguishes early indications of sick wellbeing and approach to forestall and secure. There are numerous social gatherings which can impact an individual’s wellbeing and way of life both emphatically and contrarily. These are; Gender which is simply whether you are male or female . Age which is the way old an individual is the point at which the information is recorded. Social Class which isn't intended to even now be around as we should live in a tactless society were the class of individuals doesn't make a difference. Hazard Behavior which is sure types of conduct which are demonstrated to be related with expanded helplessness to a specific ailment of sick wellbeing. Ethnicity which is the condition of having a place with a specific social gathering that has a typical national or social convention. Territory which is the position or site of something. The groupings of social classes are the five class plot Register Generals Social Class (RGSC) WHICH IS: I †Professional Occupational, II †Managerial and Technical Occupational, III †Skilled Occupational, Manual (M) and Non-Manual (N). IV †Partly â€skilled Occupational and V †Unskilled Occupational. NS-SEC represents the National Statistics Socio-Economic Classification which is: 1 †senior experts/ranking directors, 2 †Associate experts/Junior chiefs, 3 †Other authoritative and administrative specialists, 4-Own record non-expert and 5-Supervisors, professionals and related laborers. 6 †Intermediate specialists, 7-different laborers and 8 †never worked/other inert. In 1980 the dark report was then distributed. It had been commissionedâ approximately 30 years after the establishing of the NHS and gave an editorial about how the UK had done in accommodating the strength of its populace. The report reasoned that there was a more unfortunate wellbeing experience for the lower word related gatherings at all phases throughout everyday life. These were; Gender - Men and ladies in occupation class V had over multiple times higher possibility of passing on before arriving at the retirement age than those in word related class I. †during childbirth and during the main month of life the danger of death in groups of incompetent specialists was twofold that of expert families. †Boys in class V had a ten times more prominent possibility of kicking the bucket from fire, falls or glaring than those in class I †The distinction between the strength of men and lady demonstrated that the danger of death for men in every social class was twice that for ladies. †Difference in the wellbeing encounters of various racial ethnic gatherings are additionally distinguished. Age Health imbalance exists in our general public and despite the fact that they influence various regions they are interlinked. Acheson (1998) said ‘health imbalances influences the entire society and can be distinguished from baby to old age’ Locality From the dark report I can see that were you live can influence your odds for getting an ailment or ailment. We find that passing rates for CHD for those conceived I the Indian sub-mainland were 38% higher for men and 45% higher for ladies than rates inside the UK. Social Groups The wellbeing hole among rich and poor in the UK has enlarged since 1980 and class is the principle center of disparities any place they are distinguished. They found that the logical proof backings a financial clarification of wellbeing disparities which are brought about by variables, for example, salary, training, work, condition and way of life. The report made three key proposals to the administration. These are; †All strategies are probably going to affect wellbeing ought to be assessed as far as their effect on wellbeing imbalances. †A high need ought to be given to the soundness of families with youngsters. †Further advances ought to be taken to decrease salary imbalances and improve the expectations for everyday comforts of poor families. Dangers of Behavior Consistent passing rates in Europe have arrived at their absolute bottom in the whole history of human culture. The twentieth century has seen a sensational drop in the pace of irresistible malady, just as the presentation of treatments for its treatment. Normal reasons for death which have enormously debilitated, for example, TB and diphtheria were frequently connected to destitution and material deprivation. Ethnicity One of the most significant components of imbalance in contemporary Britain is race. Migrants to this nation from the purported new Commonwealth, whose ethnic personality is unmistakably obvious in the shade of their skin, are known to encounter more prominent trouble in looking for some kind of employment and sufficient lodging. The various examples and patterns that I include discovered inside my own examination about liquor related passings joins with maturing, Ethnicity, Risks of conduct, Locality, Gender and social gatherings. Sexual orientation and Aging Males matured 30 and over are essentially almost certain than females to bite the dust of liquor related causes over 66% of all liquor related passings in the UK (in 2011 were among guys). Guys matured 30 and over were altogether more probable than females o kick the bucket from liquor related causes. For both genders, the quantity of alcohol0related passings expanded pointedly from the 25-multi year mature age gathering, expanding to 838 for guys and 411 for females matured 55 to 59. After this age, the quantity of liquor related passings started to decrease consistently for guys over each age bunch lessening to 92 for those over the age of 85. The decay across age bunches was progressively continuous in females, dropping to 81 in the 85 and over age g athering. 45-49year elderly people men have kicked the bucket from liquor related demise by 32,000 however from females it goes to 14,000. Area Data for Scotland and Northern Ireland are distributed independently. Somewhere in the range of 2007 and 2010 male liquor related passing rates were fundamentally higher in grains than in England. A multi year decrease in male demise rates in ridges implies this distinction is not, at this point huge. The table shows drinking propensities by district in 2012 show individuals over the age of 16 who expends liquor week by week, for example, in the north east individuals who drink up to 3-4 units are 46% contrasted with North West who drink up to 3-4 units are 42%. Social Groups The table shows savoring propensities pregnancy in 2012. Ladies who are pregnant have devoured liquor in the most recent week is 10% contrasted with ladies who are not pregnant and uncertain are 53%. Ethnicity This table shows drinking propensities by ethnicity in 2012 for individ uals who have drank liquor inside the most recent week is 58% and the individuals who have drank liquor at least five events a week ago is 11%.

To Study the Filterability and Quality of Raw Sugar for Refining

To Study the Filterability and Quality of Raw sugar for Refining ABSTRACT This investigation was especially intended to assess the quality parameters of crude sugar which at last influence the filterability of crude sugar. It is an unadulterated sweetener which has been insignificantly prepared and result of the main phase of genuine sweetener refining process which has some exceptionally unmistakable attributes. Filterability of crude sugars is one of the essential sugar quality parameters.To the purifier, the filterability of crude soften is significant as it straightforwardly impacts production line all through. The physico-synthetic attributes of sugar including dampness, polarization, decreasing sugar, debris substance, shading constituents, microbial assessment (Total state tally and yeast) and tangible assessment, for example, appearance, smell and surface were resolved. The outcomes acquired from physico-compound examination demonstrated that these parameters were influenced essentially among the examples of crude sugars.The microbial investigation indicated that the complete province check and the yeast were additionally influenced altogether among the examples while in tactile assessment appearance was influenced fundamentally though surface and scent were influenced non-essentially among the examples of the crude sugars. It tends to be closed from the outcomes that example four was seen to have a decent quality while test six had the contrary outcome to that of test four and was considered to have an extremely low quality. Watchwords: Raw Sugar Refinery, Operational Concept and Quality Perspectives Name: Zia-ud-Din Regd.No: 2006-ag-1861 National Institute of Food Science and Technology University of Agriculture Faisalabad SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE ChairmanDr. Ghulam Rasool MemberDr. M. Atif Randhawa MemberDr. Muhammad Sharif INTRODUCTION Raw sugar is a middle result of refining and affination procedure of sugar fabricating that comprises of light yellow to brown sugar precious stones secured with a film of syrup. This is infact, a moderate stage in the creation of sugar, having sucrose and water substance 95-97 and 0. 25-1. 1%, individually. It is of yellowish earthy colored shading because of the nearness of molasses (3. %) and have consumed flavor with coarsely crystalline (Javaid et al. ,2011). The sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L. ) is a regularly dispersed plant and is one of the most critical wellspring of sugar in Pakistan. Current reports have revealed insight into various natural properties of sugarcane and its subsequent items. New sugarcane juice is across the board in Pakistan as a modest and sweet drink. It is turning into a design squeeze and thirst fulfilling drink served at side of the road slows down, bottles and cafeterias all through the nation during the reap season (Ali et al. 2001). The sugarcane is a thick, tall enduring grass that is developed in tropical or subtropical locale. In the leaves sugar is integ rated that is either utilized as a vitality hotspot for development of plant or is sent to the stalks for capacity. In the stalks the sweet sap is the wellspring of sugar. The reed collects sugar to around 15 percent of its weight. Around 2600000 tons of sugar for each year is yielded by the sugar stick. Other sugar crops for sugar creation include sweet sorghum, nectar, sugar maple and corn sugar (Dalziel et al. ,1999).Sugarcane is developed in Kharif season and is one of the primary money harvests of Pakistan. It conveys crude material to sugar ventures and sugar related items. For the provincial network of the nation, it produces salary and administrations. Essential things for businesses like sugar, chipboard and paper, sugarcane helps in their worth expansion. Its offer is 3. 6 percent in horticulture and 0. 8 percent in GDP. For the year 2009-10, a zone of 943 thousand hectares is under sugarcane development which is 8. 4 percent less when contrasted with the earlier year (102 9 thousand hectares).Production of the sugarcane for the year 2009-10 is surveyed to be 49. 4 million tons, as opposed to 50 million tons earlier year at last the creation is diminished to 1. 3 percent. Key components required for low creations are trench water shortage, power lack, zone under wheat crop during 2008-09 is greatest eventually limiting the sugarcane real esatate, lower costs for the sugarcane crop in the earlier year and higher information sources rates additionally confine the cultivating network from developing sugarcane crop (GOP, 2009-2010).The keeping nature of sugar was examined keeping in the view the way toward drying assumed a urgent job. By holding the sugar under moist conditions, microbial disintegration alongside loss of sugar happened rendering the nature of sugar debased. After the way toward drying, the procedure of polarization gets enlarged and the infamous impacts of microorganisms become less. In the event that the sugar is wet when taken care of i nto the dryer, huge measure of warmth is required for the way toward drying the sugar. Test immaculateness assumes an imperative job in assurance of in general dampness substance of the sugar sample.If the size of the precious stones of sugar becomes amplify, at last expanding the dampness level of the sugar test (Javaid et al. , 2011). An investigation was led which indicated the nearness of iron molecule and bagacillo causes the physical risks and organic tainting in the completed items separately. Following basic advances ought to be taken so as to keep the juice clear and liberated from the particles of bagacillo I. e. pre-juice warming (106 oC or above), required synthetic resting at clarifier, pass the explained juice from 0. 25 mm revolving screen. The two of them are ISO (I. . Universal Standardization Organization) 22000:2005, Critical Control Points (CCP’s) of Food Safety Management System, covers HACCP (I. e. Peril Analysis Critical Control Points) (Javaid et al. , 2011). The parameters were contemplated and a trial was directed in which pre-medications of sugarcane bagasse for the creation of fermentable sugar was completed. They considered the impacts of molecule size, NaOH focus, temperature and fluid to strong proportion (LSR) on the creation of lessening sugars and sonication time on delignification utilizing Placket-Burman design.They presumed that sugarcane bagasse that was pre-treated with ultra-sound helped basic pre-medications indicated unrivaled yield and creation of decreasing sugars when contrasted with the business pre-medicines. They likewise reasoned that the most striking element of the ultra-sound helped soluble pre-medicines was the improved adequacy during the pre-treatment time and temperature that were kept decreased during the procedure. They additionally found that the attainability and portion of this procedure for a bigger scope need vitality enhancement and proper reactors plan (Velmurugan and Muthukumar 2012).Suga r beet mash was used as a help for immobilization of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae L. ) cells to deliver bioethanol. They found the technique for immobilization of cells as straightforward, modest and simple to do. They presumed that even without the supplementation of the supplement, the creation of bioethanol in a productive way from thick squeeze of sugar beet using immobilized yeast cells on sugar beet mash is conceivable in rehashed group mode. A most extreme ethanol grouping of 52. 26 g/l, yield of 0. 446g/g was accomplished in the thick squeeze substrate of seventh maturation batch.However, the molasses was seen as less reasonable mode for the creation of the ethanol aging for multiple clusters in light of the gathering of the shaded exacerbates that cause cell spillage from the help at last influenced the digestion of the immobilized yeast cells. They likewise discovered that the dry sugar beet mash assumes a critical job during the help of immobilized yeast cell for the c reation of bioethanol and the dry sugar beet mash can be utilized as a protein source in the creature takes care of (Vucurovic and Razmovski 2012).MATERIALS AND METHODS Samples of crude sugar were obtained from sugarcane industry/nearby market. The examination was led at the National Institute of Food Science and Technology in college of farming Faisalabad. Debris substance Total debris substance were controlled by taking 5 gram test in the china dish and put on low fire while the mass is altogether roasted, at that point the example was warmed in suppress heater at 500+500C until white debris was gotten. This debris was cooled in the desiccator and said something rate utilizing the accompanying recipe: Total debris = Weight of debris ? 100 Weight of test Color esteem was resolved with shading meter ( Nauhaus shading test-II, Neotec). It was first aligned with the measures having lower and furthest cutoff points (51-70 separately). At that point the example were filled in the Petri plate and the surface was made smooth by expelling the example material from the petri plate, to get the ideal impression of light, developed by the photograph cells of the shading meter, perusing was noted from the showcase. Test readings were contrasted and the measures. Grain size of crystalsAccording to SI determinations, gems were reviewed into five sizes. In the grain size examination, 100 g of sugar was taken on sifters, set on a home of strainers with a top on the highest point of sifter and got at the base and was shaken for five minutes on a mechanical sifter shaker. The heaviness of each example in gram was taken in the level of the sugar held in the specific sifter. From the qualities, the collective rate is determined and looked at. Filterability of the examples Filterability was dictated by observing the standard strategy enrolled in AOAC (2000). 5 g crude sugar test was taken and broken down in 50 ml water until the brix of the arrangement was 300. The time was noted during the filtration of each example. At that point the percent filterability was resolved utilizing the accompanying recipe: % Filterability = measure of the sifted arrangement ? 100 Total volume of arrangement Moisture was dictated by taking 10 g of test and drying it in a sight-seeing oven

Yes, its true. Decisions are out! COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Yes, its true. Decisions are out! COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog By now youve heard the news that MIA/MPA/MPA-DP Fall 2017 admissions decisions are out. Some of you received the wonderful news that youve been admitted to SIPA, and others received some news they werent hoping for. No matter where you fall on that spectrum, I promise to address your questions this week in a series of blog posts. For today, I want to give everyone more time to process their decisionsand to celebrate the achievements of those who were admitted. To mark it, heres a look at all of the emotions in gif form those who were admitted must have felt when they read their letters. First, you got an email stating your admissions decision was ready.   [Photo courtesy of reactiongifs.com] You clicked on the email  but wanted to remain surprised. So you sort of side-glanced your computer screen and splayed your fingers over your eyes  so you wouldnt read ahead. [Photo courtesy of media.tenor.co] You read and read, and then you realize its a waste of an emailBecause we tell you to click on a link to move on to the next step. While entering your account information on the log-in screen you think: Why all the extra steps?! I already filled out a 20-page application, submitted essays, got over my fear of public speaking by answering that ridiculous video  question, donated my kidney, and [Photo courtesy of www.reactiongifs.com] Youre confronted with your Status Page and little intimidating hyperlink that connects you to your letter. (Another link?!) [Photo courtesy of www.tenor.co] And youre somewhat annoyed with us. [Photo courtesy of Pinterest] After all of that, you nervously wait for your decision letter to load. [Photo courtesy of reactiongif.org] And you read and read some more. [Photo courtesy of bluffers.com] Then, confetti sprouted from the digital heavens and at first you werent sure  the international symbol for celebration was real. [Photo courtesy of tenor.co] That Frank Sinatra tune was also pretty cool, huh?! As you continued to skim your admission letter, circling in on congratulations, you knew we werent playing a sick prank on you. [Photo courtesy of reactiongif.org] [Photo courtesy of tenor.co] Cue the much-deserved Happy Dance. [Photo courtesy of mashable.com] [Photo courtesy of giphy.com] [Photo courtesy of mashable.com] [Photo courtesy of giphy.com] [Photo courtesy of deviantart.net] [Photo courtesy of giphy.com] [Photo courtesy of giphy.com] [Photo courtesy of giphy.com] In the end, you knew you deserved it because you are [Photo courtesy of giphy.com]

Nursing Theory - 1516 Words

Application of Theory DeepaK USF NR 501 Theoretical Basis for Advanced Nursing Practice Nursing Theories In nursing there are theories that determine how the profession is going to be handled. Scholars and other practitioners of medicines have proved these theories. In our case we will be looking how these theories are applicable in the entire world of nursing medicine. What are nursing theories? Nursing theories are theories that describe, develop, and provides on how nursing profession should be carried out. These theories provide information on how or on the ground on how the terms of nursing terms can be defined and even touches on how principles of nursing and how the basis of†¦show more content†¦The nurse is always to know or predict if indeed the adaptation concept is affecting the patient. This is how it applies, that when the demands of environment or surrounding are too high, and or the person’s ways of adapting to the environments are too low, definitely the person’s behavioral responses are unable to cope. The importance of using adap tation concept is to provide scientific knowledge for practice and improve nursing as a faculty, Gardner Grand valley State University, (1994). Middle range theory and Engagement concept Middle range theory is also applied in nursing. This is where or the ability to transform disaster into a growth experience in nursing. It offers a direction and expansion of nursing in general. There are concepts that define or make up middle range theory. Concepts are the one that builds or create a theory. Remember nursing theories can be abstract or concrete. This is one of the concepts that define middle range theory. Engagement is seen in self-care by people valuation and also measures with respect to life. Some scholars too have proved that a middle range theory can be approached through deductive or inductive concepts. When using an inductive the purpose is to achieve or arrive on the theory that has got scanty information. It could be also applied when the information available is not enou gh or does not satisfy the need, therefore more information is needed hence application inductive concept. WhenShow MoreRelatedNursing Theories Of The Nursing Theory1398 Words   |  6 PagesNursing theories provide a foundation for nurses to professionally base their judgment of care. Florence Nightingale was one of the first nursing theorists. Theories composed by Nightingale were comprised of practice-based theories and environmental theories. Nightingale’s environmental theory is composed of 13 cannons which are fundamental to her theory. Nightingale’s theories continue to be used by present day nurses and nursing students. Theories are incorporated into nursing students’ educationRead MoreNursing Theories And Theories Of Nursing3078 Words   |  13 Pages Patricia Benner Nursing Theorist Group Five Beth-El College of Nursing and Health Sciences University of Colorado Colorado Springs NURS 3040: Foundations of Nursing Patricia Benner Nursing Theorist Theory, what is a theory? According to Blais Hayes, (2011) â€Å"A theory is a supposition or idea that is proposed to explain a given phenomenon. Theories differ in their scope and have been categorized in different ways. One of those categorizations schemes divide them into categories accordingRead MoreTheories And Theories Of Nursing Essay1211 Words   |  5 PagesMcEwin and Ellis, theory in nursing â€Å"offers structure and organization to nursing knowledge and provides a systematic means of collecting data to describe, explain, and predict nursing practice† (McEwen Wills, 2014, p. 25). Theories in nursing are what distinguish it from other professions and help to create professional boundaries (McEwen Wills, 2014)Click and drag to move. When theories are applied in the nursing process, there are various concepts from the respective theory that are introducedRead MoreThe Theory Of Nursing Theory812 Words   |  4 PagesTheory is the backbone to nursing as it gives n urses a framework and an idea of what they do and, most importantly, why they do it. Nursing theory means many different things to people and to only give credit to one definition would not be fair. Therefore, the definition of theory alone is, â€Å"the doctrine or principles underlying an art as distinguished from the practice of that particular art† (Theory, n.d). This definition is particularly useful because nursing is an art as well as a scienceRead MoreThe Theory Of Nursing Theory1417 Words   |  6 PagesImportance of Theory There are many ideas about theory in nursing. The definition of nursing theory is a group of concepts that can be tested, changed or used to guide research (McEwen Willis, 2014). This writer was exposed to theory in under-graduate classes and understands the importance of theory to her nursing practice. This paper will review the importance of nursing theory. It will also focus on Patricia Benner’s Novice to Expert Theory. Importance of Theory Many nurse theorists haveRead MoreNursing Theory : Application Of Nursing Theories4442 Words   |  18 PagesRunning head: NURSING THEORIES 1 APPLICATION OF NURSING THEORIES 2 Application of Nursing Theories Beatrice Mitchell MSN6003 ? Professional Nursing Practice Framework, Scope, and Role Unit 4 ? Assignment 1 8/7/16 Rhonda Hendricks Capella University Application of Nursing Theories Florence Nightingale and four nursing theorists are listed and analyzed in the taxonomy table in part I. A comprehensive summary of the nursing theories and a reflection on how each theory relates to theRead MoreNursing Theories684 Words   |  3 PagesA grand theory in nursing would be Doretha Orem’s self care theory. This theory encompasses the entire concept of nursing in the fact that it states individuals will strive to meet healthcare needs to maintain health and wellness. This is very broad, can not be tested and is used in a variety of settings and populations. Self-Care Deficit Nursing Theory is that all patients want to care for themselves, and they are able to recover more quickly and holistically by performing their own self-careRead MoreNursing Theory1224 Words   |  5 PagesImportance of Theory Paper THE ROY ADAPTATAION MODEL Kandace Wood Chamberlain College of Nursing Course Number: N501 March 2015 Introduction: Theories and models despite not being synonymous are used interchangeably in nursing. In general a theory is considered to be a speculative statement that is concerned with some elements of reality that are not yet proven. There are a number of theories in the field of nursing also which are used toRead MoreNursing Theory And The Field Of Nursing1370 Words   |  6 PagesNursing theories are not a new concept in the field of nursing or health care in general. An extremely well known nursing theorist is Florence Nightingale, but there are other theorists who have also contributed to the field of nursing. A theory is defined as â€Å"an integrated set of defined concepts and statements that present a view of a phenomenon and can be used to describe, explain, predict, and control that phenomenon† (Burns Grove, 2011, p. 228). A theory can be applied to any field, especiallyRead MoreNursing Theory and Nursing Knowledge618 Words   |  3 PagesDescribe how nursing theory has h elped facilitate the development of nursing knowledge. The nursing profession has progressed greatly since it roots with Florence Nightingale, moving from reliance upon total medical direction for providing basic care and â€Å"the first duty of the nurse it that of obedience-absolute fidelity to his orders, even if the necessity of the prescribed measures is not apparent, you have no responsibility beyond that of faithfully carrying out the directions received† (Jennifer

Designing A Business Plan For A Entrepreneurial Experience...

CHALLENGES With 30 years of entrepreneurial experience under his belt, Schneider easily can reflect on the challenges brought up in the early years of his first venture. His first challenge was securing the initial investment for his starting-up the business. It was with the financial contribution from his father, back in Germany, that help the young entrepreneur initiated his first sole proprietorship, United Guide and Outfitter in 1987 (Schneider, 2016). The second challenge the entrepreneur encountered was that he had possessed a business plan. He continues on to note that he did have a business plan but it was simplistic and was written in the wrong context (Schneider, 2016). His business plan was used only for the sole purpose of immigrating into Canada. â€Å"It did the job. I got in!†, he jokingly says, (Schneider, 2016). However, as a result of having a simplistic plan with very little fundamental elements of business such as marketing and financial, this led to financial s truggles for Schneider and his newly established Canadian business. RISKS Schneider’s migration to Canada was the riskiest actions he has even taken to this date (Schneider, 2016). At the time of the move, the then 19-year-old entrepreneur felt prepared and well ready to open his business. However, in reality, Schneider was not at all prepared. This led to him facing a few bumps in the early years as mentioned previously. Being young and naà ¯ve, Schneider tolerance to risk was higher thanShow MoreRelatedHow Does Bmw Motivate Its Employees?3172 Words   |  13 Pagesevery day, constantly learning what you like by monitoring your choices. The brains of the system might even tag along with you on a business trip in the form of a smart card, instructing the Bimmer you rent in Beijing to load up your daily fix of news and music. 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The Romantic Period Free Essays

After the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, and other social reformations in Europe, the Romantic era emerged, shaping the literary sphere. From the Romantic the Romantic era , the Romantic Gothic subgenre evolved. Writers began to focus on the idea of revolutions, the limitless nature of human beings, the beauty of spontaneity, and the darkness of the sublime. We will write a custom essay sample on The Romantic Period or any similar topic only for you Order Now Amongst many writers during this era was Jane Austen. Historians have noticed that her writing seems â€Å"untouched by the political, intellectual, and artistic revolutions of her age,† causing many to believe that she is a Neoclassic rather than a Romantic Gothic (Abrams 16). At first glance, this accusation seems to be false; some of Austen’s novels, specifically Northanger Abbey, seem to contain Gothic characteristics; however, an in-depth analysis of Northanger Abbey suggests that Austen wrote the novel as a Gothic satire. Austen mocks the sentimental Gothic conventions of her time through the characters and setting, suggesting that she is not a Romantic. To begin, Austen uses Catherine Morland to ridicule Gothic heroines and reveal their absurd nature. In the beginning of the novel, the reader realizes that Catherine is slightly different from the typical Gothic heroine. Gothic heroines are usually depicted as beautiful, talented, and tragic. It is apparent that Catherine does not fit into this mold when Austen states that â€Å"no one who had ever seen Catherine Morland in her infancy would have supposed her born to be an heroine† (Austen 15). Catherine is described as awkward, inattentive, and stupid. She lacks femininity because she favors boyish games over dolls and sports over informative books. As she matures, she isn’t gifted, skilled, or passionate—three qualities that most Gothic heroines possess. Catherine’s days are spent reading stories about heroines, suggesting that she subconsciously wishes she were one. While Catherine shows some heroic qualities (she demonstrates courage when she moves away from her parents and when she leaves the comfort of Bath to stay at Northanger Abbey), she mostly is presented as naive and immature. Austen uses these negative qualities to make laugh at the Gothic heroines of her day. Catherine’s character demonstrates how silly Gothic heroines are when she naively accuses General Tilney of murdering his wife. She is determined to prove her accusation while staying at his manor and becomes obsessed with exploring the forbidden gallery, the place where Mrs. Tilney died. While rummaging through the gallery, she realizes that there is no evidence of Mrs. Tilney’s murder—the apartments are quite normal—and she is caught sneaking around by Henry. Henry explains that his mother’s death and criticizes Catherine’s foolish accusations and thoughts. Austen writes, â€Å"Catherine was completely awakened. Henry’s address, short as it had been, had more thoroughly opened her eyes to the extravagance of her late fancies than all their several disappointments had done. Most grievously was she humbled† (Austen 187). This brings humor into the novel and encourages readers to laugh at Catherine’s stupidity. Through Catherine’s foolishness, Austen illustrates the ridiculous nature of Gothic heroines. In addition to the character of Catherine Morland, Austen uses General Tilney’s character to further mock the Gothic genre. She presents the General as the villain, a necessary role in the Gothic novel, but she reveals at the end of the story that he is simply a protective father. The General is depicted as evil through his short temperament, his refusal to speak of his deceased wife, and his domineering personality. During Catherine’s first night at the Abbey, she witnesses the General’s anger. The novel reads that General Tilney â€Å"pulled the bell with violence† and ordered that dinner be set on the table â€Å"directly† (Austen 157). This startles Catherine and puts the General in an unfavorable light. The next day, he appears even more odd when Catherine discovers that he doesn’t have a picture of his deceased wife hanging in his room. â€Å"My father was dissatisfied with the painting,† Eleanor states to Catherine (Austen 160). Catherine notices that the General never speaks of his wife and that he avoids anything that reminds him of her. From these details, Catherine infers that the General killed his wife. Later, General Tilney seems even more evil when he orders Catherine to leave the estate immediately. Catherine calls his actions â€Å"grossly uncivil† (Austen 212). Although the General’s anger, rudeness, and strangeness towards his deceased wife make him appear as the villain, the General is in reality a normal father who misses his wife and wants the best for his children. By presenting General Tilney to be scarier than he is, Austen brings humor into the novel and mocks the Gothic convention of a villain. Along with the characters, Austen uses the setting to further poke fun of Gothic conventions. Northanger Abbey, the setting of the second half of the novel, appears to be spooky and mysterious. Austen describes the estate as â€Å"rich in gothic ornaments† and gloomy in appearance (Austen 168). On the carriage ride to Northanger Abbey, Henry scares Catherine by telling her that she will experience horrors once they arrive, making her believe that his home is haunted. Catherine falls for this joke, especially when she finds a mysterious chest in her room quarters upon arriving. Later that night, she looks into a cabinet and finds a scroll of paper. While trying to read the writing, her candle goes out. Here, Austen builds the suspension. The scene is written in a way that encourages the reader to, like Catherine, believe that Northanger Abbey is haunted. Catherine breaks into a sweat as she stands in the dark with a storm occurring outside her window. After Catherine crawls into bed, Austen writes, â€Å"Hollow murmurs seemed to creep along the gallery, and more than once her blood was chilled by the sound of distant moans† (Austen 162). It is evident that the purpose of this section is to scare the reader and present Northanger Abbey as a typical Gothic setting. By the end of the novel, the reader realizes that Northanger Abbey is not haunted. When Catherine returns to the estate, Austen writes, â€Å"The Abbey in itself was no more to her now than any other house† (Austen 198). This provides more humor to the novel as the reader realizes that the mysterious chest and the forbidden gallery aren’t as frightful as Catherine initially saw them to be. Although Austen includes Gothic conventions in her novel, she makes it apparent by the end that everything scary about Northanger Abbey (the place itself and the General) stems from Catherine’s foolish imaginations, presenting the novel as a gothic parody. Thus, while Austen initially appears to be a Romantic, she separates herself from the Romantic group by playfully using Gothic conventions to poke fun of the Gothic genre. How to cite The Romantic Period, Papers

The Model Work Health and Safety Act - Key Objectives

Question: What is the Model Work Health and Safety (WHS) Act? Answer: Work Health Safety Act - Key Objectives The Model Work Health and Safety (WHS) Act incorporates the norms and policies in context to the guidelines pertaining to work and health related issues subjected to the confinements of the Australian territory. The key intent of the WHS act related to the implementation of guidelines and protocols to ensure health and wellness of the people engaged in the execution of various assignments at their work place. The methodology devised following the guidelines of WHS act focuses on the potential risks related to various job assignments on the health and safety of individuals. The proactive strategic approaches formulated in accordance with the norms of the WHS act to mitigate the risks pertaining to various disease processes and traumatic conditions in context to the nature of jobs prevalent across the Australian regions. The key objects of the act related to analyzing the nature of various duties in terms of their standards, execution, accountability and rationale with respect to the operational systems and work environment (Sherriff Tooma, 2010:p.15-16). The provisions of the WHS act in Australia enacted to safeguard the health and security of workers in terms of ensuring implantation of secured systems and structures for the employees at workplace (Dollard et al, 2014:p.39). The guidelines of the act further emphasize the maintenance of healthcare facilities within the work premises to ascertain strategic management of health challenges and accidents faced by the employees of various companies and organizations. The WHS act indeed, motivates the employers to enforce democracy at the workplace with the provision of consultation services to the workers in context to their health, wellness and safety considerations (Ruschena et al, 2015:p.52). Indeed, the consultation services at workplace facilitate the back and forth dissemination of information between the employees and healthcare units to ascertain their physical and psychosomatic health and stability during the working hours. The WHS act further emphasizes the need for conducting regular healthcare campaigns and education programs to train the workers in context to their safety requirements and hygiene within the organizational confinements. The act in fact, establishes goals for acquiring health and safety while implementing higher standards of care and measures to eliminate the potential challenges and threats in context to the work practices. Hor (2012) states the WHS statue instructing the employers to maintain risk free and protective environment for their workers within the operational premises. However, the breach of these norms by employers holds them accountable under the jurisdiction of the WHS act. Obligations of Employers Employees The WHS act aims at acquiring best work health and safety practices by the Australian employers (Kearns, 2014:p.89). The objectives and duties of the employers following the norms of the act related to effective implementation of enforcements and compliance measures to ascertain consistent improvement in healthcare and safety standards of the workers. Wagen (2010:p.255) elaborates the provision of workers compensation insurance services to all employees under the provision of the WHS act. The employers are further responsible to implement secured operational systems within the work premises to ensure safety and wellness of all employees associated with the organization. The norms of the WHS act encourage the employers in proactively engaging themselves in the risk management processes within their operational confinements. However, the execution of these processes warrants strategic evaluation of the health risks and predisposing factors in context to the events of fire and other acc idents, by the employers. The identification of potential hazards and health risks including injurious substances, heavy weight products, electrical appliances and liquefied petroleum gas cylinders warrants their effective management by the employers to prevent the life threatening outcomes in context to the events of explosion and gaseous toxicity under inadvertent accidental circumstances. Furthermore, the norms of the model act direct the employers to obtain informed consent from the employees with respect to their shift schedule, and perform evaluation of the entire health risks incurred during the operational hours (Wagen Goonetilleke, 2012:p.175). However, the WHS act also directs the employees to remain conscious in context to the health issues encountered at the workplace (Archer et al, 2012:p.35). The employees are also obliged to ascertain that their moves or mistakes do not influence the health and wellness of their fellow colleagues. The workers also require ensuring regarding the level of competence attained following the healthcare training programs organized with the intent of proactively monitoring health and wellness of the employees within the operational premises. They must understand their accountability and duties with respect to practicing compliance and security measures to bypass predisposing factors related to the adverse outcomes from the unprecedented mishappenings and pathological conditions. The employees must also strategically participate in the health care programs organized to restore confidence among the staff for increasing their efficiency to withstand the inadvertent circumstances and challenging conditions at workplace. The workers of the Australian organizations require thorough understanding of the protocols of WHS and possess the right to undertake calculated decisions in context to the health and security challenges under accidental circumstances. The duties of the employees as defined by the WHS act also include reporting the adverse or serious adverse events, hazards or injuries to their immediate supervisors during working hours for their timely management. The WHS act allows the employees to notify the person conducting a business or undertaking in context to selecting health security representatives for addressing the health and security concerns on a regular basis. These health and security representatives lead the workgroup with the intent to disseminate awareness and education regarding the health and security issues arising during the operational schedule. The business owners indeed, require consulting these health and security representatives on a regular basis to address and resolve the concerns pertaining to security and health of the potential employees (Ruschena et al, 2015a:p.36). The workers of the organizations have the liberty to participate in health care campaigns and educational seminars while configuring workgroups for unanimously escalating their concerns regarding health and security matters at workplace. Intent of Consultation, Representation Participation The participation and protection protocol of the WHS act allows the formation of workgroups to facilitate the strategic execution of security and healthcare measures within the organizational premises. The provision to cease the unsafe work in accordance to the WHS act allows the health security representatives to gain access to the work premises and facilitate termination of operations only after careful monitoring of the potential security risks and life threatening hazards associated with the particular assignment at workplace (Sherriff Tooma, 2010a:p.85). The academic literature reveals the obligation of organizations in relation to following state and federal regulations to retain occupational safety and wellness among the employees (Hrtel Fujimoto, 2015:p.92). Indeed, the norms of the WHS act direct the stakeholders of the organizations to formulate and practice reasonable approaches to ascertain health, wellness and safety of the workers during the operational processing. The preliminary responsibility of the stakeholders relates to mitigation of risks associated with the nature of the workers job. The sources of the potential risk factors warrant thorough analysis by the stakeholders in devising proactive strategies to eliminate the probability and predisposition of workers toward the inadvertent incidences at the workplace. Furthermore, the stakeholders require ensuring the implementation of safety measures in context to avoiding accidents by operational substances at workplace. The stakeholders must emphasize the development of control strategies for challenging emergencies within the operational premises. Moreover, the stakeholders also require ascertaining the provision of training programs and educational seminars to develop skills and competence among employees warranted to tackle the untoward circumstances. The norms of the WHS act in context to the health and safety of workers emphasize the need for periodic consultation with the employees. The consultation procedure requires effective execution with the participation of all employees at workplace. The employees are provided with recurrent opportunities to share their perspectives related to health and safety concerns, and allowed to participate in the decision making process for devising protective measures in safeguarding health and wellness of the workforce within the operational confinement. The continuous consultation and participation by the employees ensures timely identification and subsequent elimination of the risk factors challenging the safety and health of the employees. Additionally, the consultation participation assists the organization to monitor the health and wellness outcomes of the workers in a timely fashion. Role of Human Resources The human resource department owes the responsibility to evaluate and analyze the concerns of the employees in context to their occupational safety and health (OSH) issues originating at the workplace. The professionals representing the human resource department require through understanding and evaluation of the health and security accountabilities of both employer and employees within the organizational premises. The human resource professionals need to conduct training programs and undertake individualized sessions to ascertain further value addition to the educational sessions conducted for the employees with the intent to implement health, security and wellness at workplace. The human resource professionals also require efficient monitoring of the workforce to ensure the strategic implementation of health and safety policies among the employees for retaining their health, wellness and safety. The role of the human resource professionals for the effective implementation of OHS includes, nourishing safe culture and flexible environment for enhancing psychosomatic health and wellness among the employees. The HR professionals also require implementing strategic administrative approaches to ensure timely escalation of the adverse events and mishappenings at workplace, for their effective management by the health care team. The restoration of psychological health and wellness among the employees warrants formulating periodic hiring and appraisal programs for the potential employees by the human resource professionals. The verification of credentials and executing appropriate background checks of the employees highly warranted by the HR professionals to ascertain authenticity of the hired employees with respect to their job profiles at the workplace. The human resource professionals must also evaluate the authenticity of the health, wellness and safety policies of the company in context to the state jurisdiction and standardized norms prevalent across the globe. The accountability of the HR professionals lies in effective implementation of procedures and protocols to ascertain reduction of predisposing factors in context to the accidents and disease conditions leading the employees to life threatening morbidities and disabling conditions. The wellness counselling rendered by the human resource professionals to the target employees assists them in retaining their occupational health and wellness, while avoiding the potential risks pertaining to accidents and diseases. The role of HR in relation to implementation of OHS and WHS at workplace related to their accountability in context to providing healthcare training to the employees while coordinating with other health professionals through various health and wellness campaigns in the organizational confinement. Moreover, the human resources professionals also assist in occupational health and safety matters by organizing periodic interaction sessions with both employer and employees to track and evaluate the debateable concerns pertaining to various health and safety risks for their earliest resolution. The WHS act facilitates consistent coordination with the labour hire agency (HRM) in proactively executing the obligations in context to the health and security of the associated employees. Indeed, the role of HRM includes imparting education and awareness regarding health and safety parameters among the newly hired employees prior to operational commencement. The HRM also accountable for materializing periodic safety audits, with the intent to evaluate potential risks to health and wellness of the employees at the workplace. Indeed, the HRM also undertakes the execution of support services in terms of assisting the employees under adverse circumstances pertaining to trauma or diseases within the operational confinement. References Archer, R, Borthwick, K, Travers, M Ruschena, L 2012, WHS: A Management Guide (3rd edn.), Cengage, Australia Dollard, M, Shimazu, A, Nordin, R, Brough, P Tuckey, M 2014, Psychosocial Factors at Work in the Asia Pacific, Springer, NY Hrtel, C Fujimoto, Y 2015, Human Resource Management, Pearson, Australia Hor, J 2012, Managing Workplace Behaviour: A Best Practice Guide, CCH, Australia Kearns, K 2014, The Big Picture (3rd edn.), Cengage, Australia Ruschena, L, Travers, M, Borthwick, K Archer, R 2015, WHS: A Management Guide (4th edn.), Cengage, Australia Ruschena, L, Travers, M, Borthwick, K Archer, R 2015a, WHS: A Management Guide (4th edn.), Cengage, Australia Sherriff, B Tooma, M 2010, Understanding the Model Work Health and Safety Act, CCH, Australia Sherriff, B Tooma, M 2010a, Understanding the Model Work Health and Safety Act, CCH, Australia Wagen, L 2010, Event Management (4th edn.), Pearson, Australia Wagen, L Goonetilleke, A 2012, Hospitality Management, Strategy and Operations (3rd edn.), Pearson, Australia

3 Key Tips for What to Wear to Salsa Class

3 Key Tips for What to Wear to Salsa Class SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Getting ready to start salsa classes? Awesome! Salsa dancing is a great way to exercise, meet new people, and have fun. If you're preparing for your first salsa class, you may be wondering what to wear to salsa class. While most salsa dancing classes don't have a strict dress code, it's important to dress appropriately for the activity. Follow these guidelines when deciding what to wear for salsa dancing lessons: #1: Your outfit should be easy to move in. Salsa dancing is a physical activity, after all. #2: Your outfit should help keep you safe. You don't want to wear something that you may trip over, for instance, or shoes that don't provide enough support. #3: Your outfit shouldn't make other people uncomfortable. Salsa dancing is a social activity, and you don't want to wear something overly provocative that may make your partners uncomfortable. What to Wear to Salsa Class When deciding what to wear for salsa dancing lessons, you should look for clothing that's functional, comfortable, and makes you feel good wearing it. You'll be moving around a lot during salsa class, so it may help to dress in layers that you can remove as you start getting hot. In this section, I'll give some ideas for what men and women should wear to salsa class to be ready for the physical demands of dancing. What to Wear to Salsa Class- Women Here are some ideas for what to wear to salsa class if you're a woman: Dresses that are knee-length or slightly shorter. Jeans or leggings that are fitted through the ankle so you won't trip on them. Cropped pants, capris, or shorts that you can easily move around in. Short-sleeved or sleeveless tops. A cardigan or sweater that you can wear if it gets chilly. Shoes that are flat or have a small heel (2 inches high or less). What to Wear to Salsa Class- Men Here are some ideas for what to wear to salsa class if you're a man: Cotton t-shirts. Long or short sleeve button up shirts. Jeans, khakis, or slacks. Shorts of any kind. Light vests or sweaters that are easy to remove. Flat shoes with a smooth bottom. Final Thoughts Salsa dancing is a lot of fun, but can be challenging, especially if you're not wearing the right clothing. Make sure that you're wearing comfortable clothes and shoes that allow you to get your groove on and you'll have the time of your life.

Essay Sample on Physical Disabilities Research on the Effect of Amputation

Essay Sample on Physical Disabilities Research on the Effect of Amputation Introduction Various disabilities in the world include physical, cognitive and mental disabilities. Physical disabilities may be congenital, amputation, and other sclerosis. Amputation involves removal of injured body parts. The body part may be removed due to trauma, surgery or prolonged condition. It may occur as an injury after war or accident and unlike some animals that can grow their body parts back such as starfish, human parts do not grow back once they are removed. In US, most of the amputations today occur due to vascular systems complications caused by diseases such as diabetes. This may result from an injury or a planned surgery for preventing the spread of a disease on the hand or other parts of the body. Some of the amputated parts, for example, legs may be attached back into the body. Pinzur et al. (1667-1671) describes that an amputation occurs when the surgeon needs to remove the injured parts of the body. Before the surgery, the doctor examines the damage to the other part of the body. The area removed depends on the amount of damage. The surgeon closes the part to be amputated using skin and tendon from other parts of the body. Losing a body part such as a hand that is visible causes emotional upset to the victim. Victims for amputations take time to accept the changes in their body and the ability to function. It is essential to talk about the feelings to get more advice on adapting to the situation. Watson (2008) shows the victims may also talk to other patients who also have the disability to understand on the best way of accepting the changes. Victims should remember that with time they would adapt to the changes and need to find new ways of carrying out daily activities such as eating, bathing and changing clothes. It is important for patient to be strong during the recovery process. Patients should understand that the quality of life is directly associated to the expectations and attitude towards any situation. A positive attitude and a hopeful feeling are expected in the recovery process. According to Watson (2008), amputations on the hand have issues of accessing things, decrease coordination of eye-hand, endurance and physical stamina. The effect of amputation has an impact on the family members, friends and social life of the victim. The people close to an amputated person should ensure they support them in daily activities, for example, assist in cleaning and cooking. Family members and friends should ensure that when having a conversation with a person on the wheelchair, they should be on the same eye level. If the person needs assistance, it is necessary to ask if one may help and if they do not need assistance, this should be accepted graciously. There are possible side effects for amputation such as heterotopic ossification. This occurs when the bone injury affects the brain. The brain may signal the bone to grow rather than forming a scar tissue (American Society for Surgery of the Hand 2011). According to Pinzur et al (1667-1671), these growths interfere with the prosthetics and force the victims to carry out another operation. There are areas that assist in development of skills in areas affected by disability, for example, joining organizations that enables amputees to step out and share their issues. The Amputee Coalition shows that in US about 500 new amputations occur daily and there is need to show these people that they are part of a large community. In April 2013, the Amputee coalition launched a mettle day for encouraging amputees all over the world. The public law (PL) offers education services are provided for children with disabilities with no added costs. The free appropriate public education ((FAPE) ensures that children with disabilities get essential services and education with no cost to the family.

Group dynamics and working in teams Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Group dynamics and working in teams - Essay Example Next, Tuckman requires that each group member must act in a manner that will ensure achievement of group goals or objectives (King, 2013). Specifically, the Tuckman theory of group dynamics focuses on five phases (Connell, 2009). Bruce Tuckman coined the term in his honor. Tuckman emphasized that five phases must be procedurally implemented in order to generated quality group output. The first Tuckman phase is forming. The phase indicates each team member tries to be accepted in the team. The members start forming the team. Team formation includes determining the functions or responsibilities of each team member (Forsyth, 2009). In the current home care working group, the team leader explains in detail the responsibilities of each team member. Each team member focuses on understanding the assigned tasks. The group members exchange pleasantries in order to get to know each other better. Consequently, the group members discuss their educational attainments, work experiences and other ice breaker topics (Clements, 2008). Further, the second Tuckman phase is storming. The phase requires tolerance among the team emphasized. Tolerance is required in order to diffuse any conflicts among the team members. As each member tries to impose one’s ideology or concept on the other team members, conflicts often arise. Tolerance means meeting halfway. There is a give and take of concepts or ideologies. Failure to tolerate the other group members’ persistent requirements or preferences may trigger a disintegration or dismemberment of the group (Schweighofer, 2011). In the current home care working group, each team member is encouraged to discuss one’s responsibilities. There is a no holds barred policy implemented. The three shift nurses discuss the required daily healthcare procedures, in terms of alleviating the hypertensive elderly patient’s well-being. Consequently, the three home care workers and

Women oppression in the united States Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Women oppression in the united States - Essay Example The reality was dawning on American women that marriage and childbearing were not a guarantee for happiness. In the past, women were expected to take care of their families and perform domestic cores rather than looking for work. The society considered working women less feminine (Friedan 15).young women who left college prioritized getting married and siring children than anything else. However, housewives were increasingly becoming discontented with the kind of life they were leading, which was akin to prison life. They were becoming bored and desperate (Friedan 9). Many American women were privately seeking the services of psychiatrists as they suffered from fatigue because of numerous chores. Ancient American women mainly focused on domestic duties rather than pursue formal jobs, which were a preserve for men. The women were getting bored and desperate following their home routines. The women were obliging to the expert advice that their role was to find husbands and sire children then take care of their families. However, things have changed. The issue of gender equality has become more important than ever before. Women should be allowed to work and given equal job opportunities as their male counterparts. Women have high potential that could be exploited beyond the confines of their matrimonial

Water Supply And Pollution In Singapore

Water Supply And Pollution In Singapore Water is the most essential needs for living things, some countries like Mexico and Egypt are able to obtain clean water easily, however it is a life or death issue in many countries in the world. One of the counties that used to have a water problem is Singapore. Singapore is an island and urban city state which had problems with water in its early days. It is because Singapore does not have natural lakes and there is only little land to collect rainwater. However, in the last 4 decades Singapore has proven itself to be a country that successfully deals with water. This essay will discuss about the water related problems in Singapore, how the PUB (Public Utilities Board) as the Singapores national water agency overcome those problems, and some leadership factors that contribute to the success of PUB in solving the problems. Problems and solutions Water pollution has never been a new phenomenon and it has always been part of the ecological system. It can be caused by erosion, siltation of the streams, flood, dead animal, also the increase of human activities, etc. This phenomenon happened in many parts of the world, it happens especially in the developing country and industrial countries. Singapore had also dealt with this problem, water pollution in Singapore was caused by four major factors. First, commercial and industrial location, back in 1960s majority of manufacture was located on south and south west part of the country. These manufactures did not dump their industrial waste into the place that were provided therefore, after a few years Government made a new policies and regulation then asked the manufactures to comply with the requirement. (Hung, C. 1976) Second, hawker and market, a survey in 1969 proved that there were 18000 hawkers island wide. Most of them were using water for their business and contributing a substantial pollution to the rivers. It was estimated that about four million gallons of water waste were discharge to the streams each day. Hence, to overcome this problem those hawkers were resided to the hawker centers where the waste could be drained in the septic tank. (Hung, C. 1976) Next, farm waste, it was also big issues due to water pollution in 1960s since there were large number of farmers rearing pigs and poultry. Primary Production Department estimated that there were 600,000 pigs in Singapore these pigs produced 3 million gallons of excrement per day. Many farmers at that period discharged their farm waste to the river thus, it caused the river to be polluted. In order to control this problem, the small scale of farm would have to be encouraged and farmers were pushed to reuse the water in the farm since water in such farm is for the cleansing of the pig excrements. (Hung, C. 1976) Last but not least, the kitchen waste had also been a problem to the society in 1970s because the water waste was discharge to the open drain also the garbage was dumped into the rivers. Even though those are households waste, these wastes also contributing pollution to the river. To reduce this problem, the government tightened up the regulation such as, disallow the resident for washing their clothes on the concrete apron behind the house, discharges from wash hand basins which usually go into the open drains are prohibited. (Hung, C. 1976) Furthermore, the water engineers in Singapore always monitor the level of the river pollution. They will detect and trace the cause if there is an increase in the level of pollution. In 1979, Singapore was able to monitor 42% of the whole country. (Liu, O. 1979). Water supply has also been a big issue for Singapore, since it is a small country that only has limited water resource Singapore has to carefully plan and encourage the citizen to use the water wisely otherwise, this country could experience a water shortage. Back in 1990, Singapore was experienced an unusual period of dry weather which was caused the reservoir stocks to dropped to 68 percent from 95 percent (Public Utilities Board Annual Report 1990, 31 December 1990, pp 12). In order to prevent history to repeat itself, in recent days Singapore has four major water sources which are called National Taps. National Taps consist of water from Johor, water catchment from reservoir, desalinated water and recycled water called NEWater. Almost half of Singapores water demand was fulfilled by the imported water (water from Johor) the water agreement between these two countries was begun in 1927. These countries made another agreement in 1961, 1962 and 1990, the 1961 agreement will expire o n 2011 while the other two will expire on 2061. Singapore has some water catchment areas those are located in Ang Mo Kio, Bishan, and so on. Water catchment is about collecting water especially rain water and processing the water so that it can be consumed by the society, when this water from water catchment are being used the used water is collected then treated again to produce NEWater. NEWater is the Singapores brand for their recycled water and it also another Singapores water resources. In the present, NEWater is mostly used by industry due to its cheap price and cleanliness moreover, it able to cover 30 percents of the industrys water needs. Another water supply comes from desalination process whereby sea water is collected and treated so that the salt is extracted and the water becomes drinkable water. However, this type of water is not famous among the people compared to the other three sources it is because this type of water is more expensive due to its technology to transform sea water become into drinking water. The challenges that PUB has to deal with are not only how to cope the demand of the society but also how to reduce the demand. As there is an increase in the number of population in Singapore, the demand for water has also increased. In 1950s when the population of Singapore was about 1 million, the daily consumption of water was only 142,000 daily per capita the consumption of water increase by more than 100 percent in 1960 when the population had increased to 1.6 million by 1970s when the population reached 2.4 million, the demand for water had gone up to 262 liters per person per day. However, this is not the only factors that make the demand for water increase. Industrial development and better standard of living are the other factors which make the demand for water raise. In 1950 there were only about 580 industrial organizations with 10 or more workers. In 1970s, the number of industrial company went up to more than 2,900 companies. This made the water consumption increased fro m 50,000 cubic meters to 170,000. Water is still relatively cheap compared the other commodities and with the increase in living standard, people tend to be more liberal with the use of water. (Liu, O. 1979). Today, the population has increased to about 4.6million while water demand has grown 1.3 million cubic meters per capita. To anticipate this problem, PUB tries to seize the use of water through pricing, campaign, promoting and encouraging ownership. Pricing of water is an efficient and effective mechanism in encouraging customers to use water wisely. The water is priced to recover the full cost of its production and to make people realize that the natural supply of this precious resource is decreasing. . The water tariffs and water conservation tax were restructured over a 4-year period, starting in 1997 and it is valid for domestic and non-domestic consumers (except for domestic consumers using more than 40 cubic meters per month. Before 1 July 1997, the first 20 cubic meters of domestic consumption for each household was charged at S$0.56 per cubic meters. The next 20-40 cubic meters were charged at S$0.80 per cubic meters. Non domestic consumption of more than 40 cubic meters per month was charged S$1.17 per cubic meters. From year 2000 onward, domestic consumption of up to 40 cubic meters per month and nondomestic uses were charged at a consistent rate of S$1.17 per cubic meters. For domestic consumption of more than 40 cubic meters per month, the tariff became S$1.40 per cubic meters, which is higher than non-domestic consumption. The earlier cheaper block rate for the first 20 cubic meters of domestic consumption was eliminated. Furthermore, PUB also tries to lower the water usage by conducting a campaign for example, in 24 June 1995 PUB launched a campaign called Save Water Campaign at Bedok waterworks. This campaign was held to make the Singaporean realize that water conservation is vital to their future and also to encourage the community to use the water more prudently and effectively. During the campaign month, seminars on water conservation were given to students and workers, PUB had also invited the students, workers, and community groups to visit the water plants. Moreover, water rationing was also exercised during this campaign. The purpose of this training was to let the Singaporean experienced the difficulties and inconvenience of water shortage. Additionally, PUB also made many advertisements through mass media to make people aware about the campaign. Advertising materials such as, posters stickers, leaflets were distributed island wide. The campaign slogan and logo was also printed in the PUB bill envelopes on that month 155 litres of  water  daily per Singaporean Hung, C. (1976). Water pollution and its control in Singapore. P.100-112

Art Review

IJerry Saltz takes into consideration how Fischer uses materials that contrast in order to stimulate a mood similar to the mood evoked by a variety of places such as â€Å"the sacredness of churces, the austerity of courtrooms and the mysteriousness of research laboratories† (Saltz, 2007). The utilization of brown earth and stark white walls lends a very erotic energy to this piece; viewing the gallery is an exhilarating experience because the gallery itself is the artwork. Saltz also cites the various inspirations of Fischer's work; he mentions several names. For instance, Saltz says that Fischer’s â€Å"extraordinary gesture touches on the tradition of indoor earthworks that includes pieces from the sixties and seventies by Gordon Matta-Clark, Robert Smithson, Walter De Maria, Michael Heizer, Chris Burden, and others† (2007). Saltz also likens Fischer's work to something â€Å"unmoored† like a Tiepolo or a Corregio painting (2007). For Saltz, the greatest significance of You is the way it defies conventions. Over the years, Gavin Brown's Enterprise has been a venue for artists' exhibitions such as Chris Ofili, Jake and Dino Chapman, Piotr Uklanski, and Anselm Reyle (2007). Previous exhibitions make artworks look like â€Å"products lined up for sale† but You is a kind of a â€Å"warning sign† because â€Å"it makes fun of these conventions† (2007). This writer agrees with Saltz in that sense because for many people, it is quite a surprise to encounter a gallery that is an artwork in itself. Appreciating You is a thrilling experience it gives the viewer an â€Å"I-can-see-everything† feeling (2007). The viewer feels like he or she is indoors and outdoors at the same time. For the art review essay, this writer will use the effect of the materials and the treatment of landscape and space in contributing a certain mood. Also, this writer will use the composition of the design.

Nuclear Power- Ethics Study

VALUE ISSUES IN DECISION-MAKING ABOUT NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION: AN ETHICAL ANALYSIS Report drawn up for Afrosearch by Prof. Johan Hattingh and Me. Leanne Seeliger Unit for Environmental Ethics University of Stellenbosch March 2002 1 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 1. INTRODUCTION †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 2. METH ODOLOGY †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6 3. THE BASIS AND STRUCTURE OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6 4. A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE EMERGENCE OF VALUE ISSUES †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦11 RELATED TO NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION 4. 1 The nuclear debate in the USA †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦13 4. 2 The nuclear debate in Western Europe †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦21 4. 3 The nuclear debate in South Africa †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦25 5. THE ORIGINS, PARAMETERS AND IDEOLOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE SOCIOPOLITICAL DEBATE ABOUT NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦35 6. IDENTIFYING CORE ASSUMPTIONS AND VALUE ISSUES IN THE ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST NUCLEAR ENERGY †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦45 6. 1 A schematic overview †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 45 6. 2 On the question whether nuclear power is clean or not †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦52 6. 3 On the question whether nuclear power is safe or not †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 56 6. 4 Nuclear energy and nuclear weapons †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 64 6. 5 On the question whether nuclear power is affordable or not †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦67 7. CONCLUSION †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 69 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 75 ADDENDUM 1: SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 80 ADDENDUM 2: FOCUSING ON VALUES IN PUBLIC DECISION-MAKING: IMPORTANCE, METHODOLOGY AND VALUE ADDED †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 92 GLOSSARY†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦98 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of S tellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report gives an overview of the value and ethical issues relevant to decision-making about nuclear power generation in general. An historical overview of the emergence of these value issues as they respectively related to the USA, Western Europe and South Africa was traced in Section 4.Questions with regards to the ambivalence towards nuclear power generation (i. e. strong opposition versus strong support) that emerged from this historical overview were analyzed in Section 5 and 6, where they were placed within the context of a social-cultural as well as an analysis of ideology. In this regard it was found that nuclear science and technology has brought modernism to its peak, but exactly this has also raised problems that cannot be overcome from within the framework of conventional responses of modernism itself.Section 6 of this report has been devoted to a close analysis of particular arguments pro- and contra nuclear power generation as they relate to value issues with regards to nuclear power generation in general. Particular attention was given to issues of:  § Clean energy  § Safety  § Nuclear energy and nuclear weapons  § The cost of nuclear energy. The recommendations for decision-making that we make, have been based on the principles and contents of common morality, the contours of which are discussed in Section 3. These recommendations are stated in the report within the context from which they have emerged.All of these recommendations have been consolidated in a separate list at the end of this report (see Addendum 1). It is important to note that these recommendations should be read in conjunction with one another, and not in isolation from one another. *** Since the nature, methodology, importance and implications of an ethical analysis of the value issues pertaining to nuclear power generation is not e vident from the outset, these themes were discussed in Addendum 2 in which the following questions were addressed:  § Why is it important to focus on values in a process of decision-making on nuclear? What is the nature of an ethical analysis of the value issues involved?  § What is the difference that such an ethical analysis can make to decision-making? 3 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. 1. INTRODUCTION This report gives an overview of the value and ethical issues relevant to decision-making about nuclear power generation in general.The brief for this study was to do a desktop study in which the value issues are identified that are related to the use of nuclear power generation (in general), to analyze these issues f rom an ethical point of view, to show what the implications of these issues are for decision-making, and to make recommendations about appropriate responses to these value issues. The terms of reference of this study also required an overview and critical analysis of the main arguments for and against nuclear power generation.This analysis of pro- and antinuclear positions will endeavour to bring rational understanding to a terrain where informed debate seems to have made way for â€Å"an anarchy of values, interests, and perspectives† (Barrie 1994: 173), adversarial confrontation, and ideological posturing. Part of the aim of this overview is to identify strategies to come to grips with this situation. It should be borne in mind that the context of this study is the process of decision-making about the proposed siting of a demonstration model pebblebed modular nuclear reactor (PBMR) in South Africa, either at Koeberg near Cape Town, or at Pelindaba near Pretoria.Associated w ith this proposal, but subject to different assessments in their own right are proposals about a fuel manufacturing plant for the PBMR at Pelindaba, as well as the importation and transportation of raw material and manufactured fuel along certain routes. However, in terms of our brief, it falls outside the terms of reference for this study to address the particular value issues pertaining to the complex of proposals pertaining to the siting of a PBMR in South Africa.The results of this study, though, will be used to alert decision-makers to the value issues related to the PBMR proposals that may require in depth attention. In the study that we have conducted, the methodology of which is described below, the following have been identified as the main areas about which the pro- and anti-nuclear positions differ deeply and fundamentally.  § The question of the health hazards of radioactivity  § The problem of the disposal of nuclear waste  § The problem of the risk of catastrophi c reactor accidents  § The problem of external costs and affordability Nuclear proliferation.  § Terrorism  § Sabotage 4 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. For the purpose of our investigation, we have distinguished between stronger and weaker variants in the anti- and pro-nuclear positions, and have identified the main reasons why these differences occur.As we will show in the course of our study, these differences have to do with different sets of opposing, and in some instances, incommensurable assumptions that are adopted on a variety of issues – which explains why the divide between the stronger variants of the pro- and anti-nuclear positions appears to be unbridgeable, and why it is virtually impossible to negotiate one's way in the nuclear debate without facing strong counter-arguments and even deep-seated emotions.We acknowledge that all of the problem areas listed above clearly cannot be divorced from involved technical and scientific considerations, which raises the problem of the vast difference in the levels of knowledge between experts working in the nuclear field and the public that is expected to comment on proposals in this regard, as well as that of effective public participation.However, the focus of this report will fall on the value dimensions of these problems and the ethical issues that are brought forward by them. For the purposes of this report, it is assumed that the facts with regards to technical aspects of nuclear power generation are known and well understood. It should also be stated at the outset that his report is written against the background of an emerging international trend in risk decision-making, amely to acknowledge and incorporate value and ethical issues in the whole of the process, from feasibility studies, scoping studies, impact assessments, generation and consideration of alternatives, right up to the final decision-making and implementation phase (see Nye 1986; Brown 1995; Lemons 1995; Cothern 1996, Newton and Dillingham 1996; Harris, Pritchard and Rabins 2000; Reason in Practice 2001, Shrader-Frechette 1991, 1993a, 1993b, 1994, 2000 ).Since not everyone involved in the process of risk decision-making is aware of, or in agreement with this emerging trend, a brief overview of what is entailed here is given in Addendum 2 attached to this study. Before we proceed with the analysis of the value and ethical issues pertaining to decisionmaking about nuclear power generation, it is important to first provide an overview of the historical and socio-political context within which the nuclear debate is currently situated internationally, as well as locally within South Africa. In this regard we will give a brief overview of the Hi storical emergence of the nuclear debate in the USA, Western Europe and South Africa  § The deeper cultural and socio-political assumptions informing the nuclear debate. 5 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. The rationale of this study is to determine what the implications of an thical analysis of the value issues involved are for public decision-making about nuclear power generation. These recommendations will be identified during the course of this report at the places where they arise. A full articulation and a consolidated list of these recommendations will be given at the end of this study. 2. METHODOLOGY In order to execute this brief, a survey of local and international publications about the history of the socio-pol itical debate about nuclear energy was undertaken. In this regard, the focus fell particularly on literature devoted to the values that are at issue in this debate.Literature from the subject fields of philosophy and ethics were of great help in this regard. In the main part of this report, a close analysis of the arguments for and against nuclear power generation is given, focusing on different variants of the pro- and anti-positions in this debate, and concentrating in particular on the different assumptions informing each variant. On the basis of this analysis, a number of value issues (or ethical risk areas) were identified that should receive due consideration in any public decision-making on nuclear power generation.What these ethical risk areas entail, and what an appropriate ethical response to it could entail, was captured in a number of recommendations that are consolidated at the end of our study. A number of interviews with specialists on the scientific and technical asp ects of nuclear power generation have also been conducted. Since some of them have instructed us not to mention their names in this report, we withhold all names in this regard for the sake of consistency. 3. THE BASIS AND STRUCTURE OF THE RECOMMENDATIONSIn order to overcome the problem of casting our recommendations in a prescriptive, moralistic tone that could be easily dismissed as biased or subjective (cf. Stout 1993: 215), we have opted to formulate them either in terms of ethical risk areas, or in terms of issues about which decision-makers will need to have clarity if they wish to make any ethically defensible decision at all. These ethical risk areas or issues have been identified on the basis of what is generally known in the literature as â€Å"common morality† (cf. Outka and Reeder 1993; Reeder 1993; Stout 1993).This common morality comprises a cluster of values and assumptions that a substantive majority in society adhere to in their daily lives, setting the param eters of what one can reasonably expect of human behaviour within society, in particular within the public domain. 6 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas.It is assumed within this study that common morality is based on the notion of acknowledging and respecting certain common traits shared to a large degree by all human beings (Harris, Pritchard, Rabins 2000: 32-33). These common traits include:  § Vulnerability (The ability to suffer and to experience pain and unhappiness; the limitations of bodily existence and susceptibility to diseases and disability; the fact of growing old and dying. )  § Autonomy (All humans share to some degree the ability of thinking for themselves and making their own decisions. )  §Interdepende ncy (All humans depend on others to help them get what they want, through co-operative endeavour and division of labour. Our well-being also depends on others refraining from harming us. )  § Shared expectations and goals (Besides wanting things for ourselves as individuals, we may want things together, as groups working toward shared ends. These groups may range from caring relationships between two or more individuals to larger groups, such as a particular profession, religious institution, nation, or even an international organization as the United Nations.  § Common moral traits (Humans typically display shared moral traits such as fairmindedness, self-respect, respect for others, compassion, benevolence etc. Despite individual differences in the strength, scope, and constancy of these traits, they are found to some degree in all humans. ) It is not claimed here that this list is complete, but it does give us a reasonable basis for understanding why common morality would inc lude general moral rules or principles about duties such as (Harris, Pritchard, Rabins 2000: 33; Rachels 1997: 10):  § Not to harm others.  §To make reparations for harms done to others.  § Not to lie or cheat.  § To keep our promises.  § Not to interfere with the freedom of others.  § To respect others' capacity to make rational decisions about matters affecting their lives.  § To treat others fairly.  § To help those in need.  § To be open and honest in one's dealing with others.  § To take special care when one can cause great harm to others. It is furthermore important to know that different standard approaches exist to prioritize these duties and obligations, or to cluster them around a more general principle.Utilitarianism, for instance, in one of its versions, would support the principle of maximizing human well-being 7 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Uni t for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. (i. e. ensuring satisfaction of human welfare for the greatest number of people for the longest time).Certain rule-based approaches, on the other hand, will relate these core duties and obligations of humankind to a morality of respect for persons. For the purposes of this overview, these different approaches are important in so far as they make use of different argumentative channels to arrive at a decision about what should be done. However, in spite of the differences in â€Å"logic† that they display, substantive overlap exists in the conclusions that they reach.Utilitarian morality (typically focusing on a close analysis of consequences in terms of costs and benefits: the morally acceptable option is the one with the best consequences) and a respect-for-persons morality (typically making use of respect for human a utonomy as point of departure, or emphasizing the importance of special obligations, justice and human rights) may indeed differ in terms of what they appeal to, and accordingly what they offer as reasons for or against a certain course of action.However, despite different approaches to justify moral choices, often these different approaches arrive at remarkable similarities in what they support as morally acceptable and what they reject as morally unacceptable. Both approaches also have fairly well developed strategies to overcome differences if they find that they make diverging recommendations (Harris, Pritchard, Rabins 2000: 60, 93; cf. also Jonsen and Toulmin 1988: 1-20).That such a thing as common morality exists, is evident from the fact that the gist of the duties and obligations listed above is informally codified in strong societal notions of what constitutes the difference between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. Similarly, much of the â€Å"spirit† of these duties and obligations form the basis of formal instruments within society, for example legislation and acts.The Bill of Rights in South Africa's Constitution, for example, is one possible codification of common morality – conceptualized as a set of shared norms and principles that the majority of reasonable and thinking people in society would like to see realized. The same can be said of about every act of Parliament that has been passed since the transformation to democracy in 1994, and about many others that have been passed before that.They all, to a greater or lesser degree, codify some aspect of common morality thereby setting standards below which we would not like people to go in their choices and actions. As such, common morality entails a â€Å"thin† layer of consensus among people in a society where a line is drawn below which no-one is allowed to venture without a very good justification. This observation highlights the phenomenon that any deviation from t he minimum standards of common morality are frowned upon by society, and that such deviations are only allowed if very good reasons exist to do so.For example: to respect freedom of movement is one of the instances of respecting the autonomy of persons, but one would be foolish if one insists on this freedom if it will interfere with government rendering assistance to people 8 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. uffering from a natural disaster such as a flood. In such a case, it is apparent that good reasons exist to temporarily restrict the right of the public to move freely in certain areas. Another important point to bear in mind, is that the standards of individual morality may differ from that of common morality. Many i ndividuals ascribe to moral standards that are much higher than that of common morality. These could be referred to as moral ideals, and as such, it would not be reasonable for society to expect everyone to adhere to the same standards.An apt example would be the self-sacrifice of Mother Theresa in her humanitarian service to the poor and destitute of society. We all may admire her for her courage and heroism, but we cannot blame others if they do not follow the same path in their lives. We can only legitimately start to blame someone for unacceptable behaviour and take him/her to task about it if the minimum standards of common morality are transgressed. Similar observations can be made about professional conduct, with the difference that we sometimes can hold professionals accountable at a higher level of morality for unacceptable behaviour.Professional morality often sets standards that are higher than that of common morality, and professional bodies are created to ensure that th ese standards are adhered to. Accordingly, we can take professionals to task if their actions fall below the standards that they have set for themselves. However, if they act in areas where no professional standards exists, the minimum standards of common morality apply in the same manner as in the case of individuals acting in public.The implications of the points mentioned above for public decision-making follow from the fact that a core set of duties and obligations related to common morality can always be identified at any given time in any society. If common morality is not encoded in laws, structures and standard operational procedures, common practice amongst reasonable, thinking people will always yield ample pointers to the contents and basis of such a common morality. As such, common morality will always be available as a point of reference in public decision-making.Similarly, common morality will also always be available as basis for the evaluation of any public decision- making. In fact, where society may to some extent still tolerate individuals who fall below the minimum standards of common morality, less room for tolerance is given to bodies who have to make decisions where the common good and the welfare of the public are at stake. However, if public decisions are made in areas where there is no clear guidance from existing laws, statutes and standard operational procedures, the minimum standards of common morality will be applied.With this in mind, an ethical risk area can in the first place be defined as an actual or a potential course of action in which the letter and the spirit of the minimum standards of 9 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. common morality are ignored, undermined, o r transgressed.The ethical risk factor lies in the fact that society would not easily allow anyone to go below the minimum standards of common morality, or forgive them for that matter if they in fact do so. The frequent occurrence of public scandals (and the victimization of transgressors) is more than enough evidence of this phenomenon. An ethical risk area can further be described as an actual or a potential course of action in which the letter and the spirit of the standards in relevant legislation and regulatory procedures are ignored, undermined, or transgressed.In such cases it is not only a standard operational procedure that is ignored, or a law that is broken; what is compromised is public trust in agencies and officials who, beyond their duties and obligations as individuals, individually and collectively also have special duties and obligations to obey the law, and follow standard procedures to ensure that the interests of the common good and public welfare are well-serv ed.Within the context of decision-making about nuclear power generation, a third level of ethical risk has to do with the fact that the development and application of nuclear technology places extraordinary duties and obligations on those responsible for its management and control since the potential exists within this context for â€Å"acute exposures† and â€Å"catastrophic accidents† (DME 1998: 62).This follows from the reasonable expectations of the public that officials have a duty of due care correlative to the actual or potential dangers related to the processes and procedures that they manage. This injunction is based on the tenet of common morality, which states as follows: Other things being equal, one should exercise due care to avoid contributing to significantly harming others.However, if the dangers or risks involved are extreme, then common morality dictates that we have a correlatively extreme duty to take due care to safeguard the public from such dang ers. In literature on professional ethics, this is referred to as the corollary of proportionate care, and it reads as follows: When one is in a position to contribute to greater harm or when one is in a position to play a more critical part in producing harm than is another person, one must exercise greater care to avoid doing so (Harris, Pritchard and Rabins 1998: 63; cf. also Alpern 1991: 189).In the case of decision-making about nuclear power generation, this exposes officials, regulators and decision-makers to ethical risks if they fail to demonstrate to what extent they indeed can, and in future will be able to meet the reasonable expectations of the public to be protected from disasters or harm to their best interests. Accordingly, the recommendations in this overview are structured in such a manner that they highlight those areas in which a course of action (in this case a decision about nuclear power generation) exposes decision-makers to the three levels of ethical risks m entioned above.Conversely, the recommendations in this report are structured to show which kinds and which 10 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. levels of justifications would be required to legitimately digress, if at all, from the reasonable expectations and minimum standards of common morality. Recommendation 1 General formulationDecision-makers and those commissioned to inform decision-making (e. g. scientists, engineers and environmental assessors) should clearly state which values they are using, and how they are using their values to make their choices and formulate their recommendations. Application This recommendation applies to all of the phases of the scientific and technical studies commissioned to inform decisio n-making. This also applies to all of the phases of decisionmaking. Note This could be done without falling into the traps of subjectivity and relativism by referring back to the minimum standards set by common morality. . A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE EMERGENCE OF VALUE ISSUES RELATED TO NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION For the purposes of this study, the history of the emergence of value issues with regards to nuclear technology in the USA, Western Europe and South Africa will be used as point of departure. This history is fairly well-documented, but it is important to pay attention to it in broad overview to form an understanding of the long period of the sensitization of public opinion against nuclear technology (Piller 1991; Dunlap, Kraft and Rosa 1993; Gerrard 1995).Although there is a substantive overlap in the value issues that have been raised in the nuclear debates in the USA, Western Europe and South Africa respectively (see Mink 1981; Patterson 1982; Welsh 2000), it should be bor ne in mind that similar kinds of value issues have been responded to differently in different countries. For instance, in France where about 75% of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants, a predominantly positive attitude towards nuclear technology exists that is steadily growing (Koopmans and Duyvendak 1994). This difference, we believe, should not be ascribed to the existence of different value issues, 11Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. but rather to the fact that virtually the same value issues can be responded to in different ways by different societies and communities. It should also be borne in mind that the history of the emergence of value issues regarding nuclear technology the world over should not be seen as one single and coherent phenomenon.As it will be shown in the sections below, this history differs from country to country, depending on numerous national and international factors impacting on the public consciousness of the broad population of a particular country or region. Where some countries (for instance Germany) have experienced a progressive growth in public opposition towards nuclear technology, as well as an increase in levels of mistrust in the institutions responsible for the management and regulation of it, other countries (for example France) have little, if any resistance movement against nuclear technology left to speak of.Recommendation 2 General formulation Decision-makers about nuclear technology should duely acknowledge and respect the differences in the articulations and interpretations of value issues brought forward by any use of nuclear technology. Special attention should be given to the sharp divide between those opposed to nuclear technology, a nd those that support it. Particular formulationIn order, to enable themselves to make up their minds in a rational and reasonable manner in a situation of such differences, decision-makers about nuclear technology should familiarize themselves thoroughly with the nature and structure of these differences, as well as the grounds and the justifications for the different positions that are defended. Application If a decision is made for or against any proposal about nuclear technology, a strong obligation rests on decision-makers to clearly spell out what the grounds and justifications for their choices are, and why these grounds and justifications should be accepted above others. 2 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. 4. 1 The nuclear debate in the USA 4. 1. 1 Value issues in the early history of nuclear technology in the USAA review of relevant literature shows that the early history of the utilization of nuclear technology in the 1940s and 1950s in the USA, whether for the purpose of weapons manufacturing or for the generation of electricity, was characterized by an atmosphere of technological euphoria and optimism (Dunlap et al 1993: 33, 34). At this time, the completion of the Manhattan Project was seen as the â€Å"most remarkable scientific and engineering feat in the history of the human race† (Dunlap et al 1993: 33), and accordingly, everything that was required to establish and promote the fledgling nuclear industry on a commercial basis in the USA was done.The most famous and often quoted articulation of this optimism is found in the words of Lewis Strauss, then Chairman of the US Atomic Energy Commission who spoke of â€Å"unlimited power†, and of electricity â€Å"too cheap to m eter†. He also referred to an era in which famines would be remembered only as matters of history. Strauss further argued that people would â€Å"travel effortlessly over the seas and under them and through the air with a minimum of danger and at great speeds and [would] experience a life span far longer than ours†. In his view, atomic power promised â€Å"an age of peace† (quoted in Dunlap et al: 1993: 35-36).Since the era after the Second World War was also characterized by the Cold War and an accelerating arms race between East and West, the development of nuclear technology was, for understandable reasons of security, covered by a blanket of official secrecy. This secrecy also applied to commercial nuclear facilities, which made it very difficult for the public to gain access to data about potential safety problems of plants. This, in turn, made it virtually impossible for the public to influence either the development of the nuclear industry in the USA, or i ts regulation.In fact, legislation about atomic energy in the fifties made it possible for the US Atomic Energy Commission to leave it largely to the nuclear industry to regulate itself, while the right of the public to hold the industry liable for damages in cases of a major nuclear accident was for all practical purposes suspended. The net result of this was that the industry was provided with a great deal of protection and support, while the ability of the public to scrutinize and intervene in the industry's development was effectively curtailed (Dunlap et al 1993: 34 – 38).It was only during the early 70s after new legislation has been passed that a new approach to regulation was developed in which the public received a greater ability to influence regulatory decisions. Until then, the development of the nuclear industry was very much a foregone conclusion, with little hope for the public to be able to intervene in the direction or momentum of this development process. 13 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002.Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. The central issues that were put on the table from the side of the nuclear industry at this time, were commercial in nature, and had to do with  § patent rights  § ownership of fissionable materials, and  § free competition in private enterprise. From the side of the industry, public health and safety received less attention than the difficulties of establishing a viable commercial enterprise. Public interests, insofar as it was considered at all, was singularly defined as providing consumers with limitless supplies of cheap electricity †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Dunlap et al 1993: 34). From the side of the public though, health, safety and security were central value issues that manifested in c oncerns about:  § The siting of nuclear facilities  § Reactor safety and the risk of catastrophic accidents  § Weapons proliferation. What is clear from the literature is that the problem of nuclear waste storage was of little concern during this time, since the volume of it involved was relatively small.The question whether the use of nuclear technology was really necessary or not, was also not seriously considered in public debates. Both of these questions only moved to centre stage during the 1980s. Recommendation 3 General formulation With the scenario of a new generation civilian nuclear industry being established in South Africa, the temptation may be to promote the industry by protecting it from effective public scrutiny, thereby blocking the ability of the public to influence development and regulatory decisions in this regard.Decision-makers as well as the proponents of nuclear technology should avoid this at all costs. Specific formulation Because nuclear based energ y generation has become a sensitive issue, the ability of the public to participate and influence the process of decision-making should rather be actively promoted and developed. 14 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch.This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. Explanatory note 1 The central value assumption on which this recommendation rests, is that effective public participation in the process of decision-making about nuclear power plants is essential to ensure (a) the health and safety of the public, and (b) to establish trust in both the nuclear industry and the institutions responsible for its regulation on the one hand, and the process of decision-making about it on the other hand.Explanatory note 2 Effective public participation within this context entails at le ast (a) access to adequate information about nuclear technology and its applications that will enable interested and affected parties to make up their own minds about the value issues (e. g. ealth and safety issues) involved; (b) reasonable time allocations for interested and affected parties to digest and understand the information; (c) reasonable time and opportunities for interested and affected parties to convey their views to decision-makers; (d) reasonable time and opportunities for interested and affected parties to explain their views to decision-makers and to answer questions about these views. Recommendation 4 Introductory note The introduction of any new-generation nuclear technology in a country rests on the hidden assumption that it is indeed necessary to establish such a new eneration of nuclear technology. General formulation In order to ensure that the development of new-generation nuclear technology in South Africa is not seen as a foregone conclusion that cannot be changed or influenced by the public, a strong burden of proof rests on the proponents of such technology to make it clear whether they see the development of this technology as necessary or not, what the grounds for this view is, and how these grounds can be justified. ApplicationSuch grounds and justifications given by the proponents should subsequently be made available for public review in a process of effective public participation, and eventually proponents should be able to demonstrate if, how and why these grounds and justifications should be upheld in the face of criticism. 15 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch.This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. 4. 1. 2 Value issues during the era of the proliferation of nuclear power plants: 1960s and 70s Since the e rection of the first nuclear power plant at Shippingsport, Pennsylvania in 1957, the era roughly spanning the 1960s and 70s, until the accident at Three Mile Island in 1978 can, on the one hand, be characterized as that of the proliferation of nuclear power plants, while on the other hand it can be characterized as the era of the consolidation of ambivalence towards nuclear technology.As it was in the era before, the central concerns about nuclear technology in the mind of the public were the siting of nuclear facilities, reactor safety and the risk of catastrophic accidents, and given the Cold War, the dangers of weapons proliferation. These concerns were based on a greater emphasis placed by the public on health, safety, and the effective management of technological hazards.On the other hand, the nuclear industry was preoccupied with delivery, since utilities finally started to place commercial orders for nuclear reactors after the mid-sixties. This preoccupation was clearly vindi cated retrospectively by the oil crisis of 1973, which opened the eyes of the world to its vulnerability if it only depended on oil as its source of energy. During this time, public participation in decision-making about the siting and regulation of nuclear power plants was virtually non-existent.In terms of the rules of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), AEC staff and utilities worked out their differences behind closed doors, while the public was not even permitted access to the agency's data about potential safety problems of the plants. Notwithstanding these conditions, the public raised several safety issues in public hearings on proposed reactors that the AEC was not able to resolve. Rosa and Freudenburg (in Dunlap et al 1993: 37) pointed out that â€Å"†¦ the AEC's response scarcely indicated ‘excessive sensitivity' to public concern.Rather than holding up the issuance of permits until the questions could be answered, the AEC decided that if a question covered se veral plants, it no longer needed to be decided in an individual licensing case. Instead, it would be treated as a ‘generic' safety issue, the resolution of which would be sought through the ongoing research of the AEC and the industry. In the meantime, the plant could be built and operated. † This meant that the AEC effectively treated safety issues as irrelevant to the licensing of nuclear reactors.The perception was therefore created that the AEC only paid attention to issues that itself found legitimate, and that public opinion was not taken seriously in decisionmaking about nuclear technology. If one further takes into account that the AEC at the time only had minimal safety standards, leaving safety issues largely in the realm of the industry's 16 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch.This Report consists of 98 p ages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. own responsibility, and add to this that the industry was not accustomed to the intensity of management required, sometimes showing indifferent compliance to the minimal AEC procedures at the time, it is no wonder that public trust was lost in the ability of the AEC to effectively regulate the nuclear industry and that an active anti-nuclear movement started to emerge.In 1973 an evaluation of the AEC licensing process funded by the National Science Foundation concluded: â€Å"The whole process as it now stands is nothing more than a charade, the outcome of which is, for all intents and purposes, pre-determined† (quoted in Dunlap et al 1993: 37). In her characterization of this trend as a crisis of participation, political philosopher Robyn Eckersley (1992: 8-11) points out the basic value issue involved here is that of justice.On the one hand, administrative justice requires that people are not only a dequately informed about any imminent public decisions that may impact on their lives, whether these impacts are positive or negative, but also that they are given a reasonable opportunity to participate in the process of making that decision. At the same time, the requirements of distributive justice state that the benefits and burdens of any public decision ought to be distributed fairly among the population.The ideal would, from an ethical point of view be that, if there are burdens, that the population enjoying the benefits completely overlap with the population bearing the burdens. Since this cannot be achieved in all cases, the next issue is raised, namely fair compensation. Since these questions require careful deliberation about siting, management and regulatory decisions, the public value of justice in all of the meanings listed above is seriously compromised if the process of public participation about siting, management and/or regulation has deteriorated into a charade.Re commendation 5 General formulation Decision-makers about any proposed development or application of nuclear technology should be able to clearly demonstrate that public opinion expressed in the process of public participation has been taken seriously, and that concerted efforts have been made to understand and accommodate public opinion in the process of decision-making. Application In order to do this, decision-makers will have to do much more than merely provide a list of concerns and views that have been raised in the process of public participation.They will have to provide in the first place clear and coherent reasons and justifications for their decisions, and show, in the second place with proper arguments why certain concerns and 17 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. iews were dismissed in the process of decision-making, and why others were taken into account. Explanatory note Given the technicalities of the issues related to decision-making about nuclear technology, and given the fact that public concerns can easily be swept off the table by experts in the field as unfounded, a real danger exists that the public can lose its trust in the ability and willingness of decision-makers and regulators to take their concerns seriously.This clearly can happen if the concerns of interested and affected parties are dismissed as unimportant without providing explicit reasons why this is done. Similarly, trust in decision-makers and regulators would be severely underminded if the concerns or views of interested and affected parties were reduced to merely technical or management problems – as challenges that can be addressed by public relations programmes, or information and education campaigns. 4. 1 . 3 Value issues in an era of profound skepticism about nuclear technologyDuring the 80s and early 90s, the ambivalence towards nuclear energy in the USA deepened to the point that virtually no reconciliation between the pro- and the anti-nuclear groups seem possible. During the 80s a profound skepticism emerged about the ability of institutions in the nuclear industry to ensure nuclear safety, in particular the safe storage of nuclear waste. With about 112 commercial nuclear reactors in operation in the USA alone, the problem of a large volume of high level radioactive waste emerged as the most problematic policy challenge that the nuclear industry has ever faced.With public opinion fueled by images of catastrophe after the Chernobyl disaster of April 26, 1986, all of the efforts of the DOE to find a single geological repository for high level nuclear waste storage proved to be unsuccessful. In fact, the studies that were done in order to determine the feasibility of the proposed Y ucca Mountain geological storage site rather concentrated the focus of public opinion, turning it into a general rejection of continuing with any further development of nuclear technology at all.However, in the light of concerns about climate change and the alleged links to high levels of CO2 emissions, a resurgence of interest in nuclear power occurred in the late 80s and early nineties. The first Bush administration, for instance boosted this interest when it stated in its National Energy Strategy of 1991 that the USA's capacity for electricity generation should be increased from its levels of 99. 5 gigawatts in December 1990 to between 190 (double) and 290 (triple) gigawatts. 18 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation.Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. With the advantage of hindsight, after what transpired at the Kyoto Conference on Climate Change in 1997 – the USA chose not to sign the multi-lateral agreement on the curtailment of CO2 emissions – critical observers around the world started to question the very basis of the extremely high levels of energy consumption that is found in the USA.With some basing their questions on concern for fairness toward future generations, and with some basing their questions on concern for fairness towards other nations living on the planet now, it is asked more and more these days to what extent such high levels of energy consumption can be reconciled with the ideals of inter- and intra-generational justice. According to Robyn Eckersley (1993: 17-21), questions like these confronts us with a crisis of culture and character.It confronts us with large, all-encompassing questions about who we are, what kinds of lives we are living, and how we shape our own future and that of the planet by the choices we make now in the present. This in turn not only confronts us with a further set of questions, like: Do we really need this kind of energy and at this level? Do we really need this kind of transport; and this level of consumption in our lives? What does it mean to live a rich and full life?It also confronts us with the question of how we go about settling these questions: on the basis of which considerations, on the basis of which reasons and which justifications? In short, these questions require of us to make explicit what kinds of lives we can justifiably live in the face of scarce resources and global injustices. It furthermore requires of us to make explicit what kinds of institutions and organizations and states we justifiably support in order to realize public values such as justice and fairness.This line of thinking clearly brings us into the realm of a radical questioning of the current social ideals that we support, and structures that we live in, as well as the question whether they should be continued in their present form, or substantively transformed. As Eckersley (1993) sees it, the environmental crisis has created an opportunity for us to emancipate ourselves from the assumptions, ideals, structures and institutional forms that have become problematic in our time. Apparently this seems to be a long ay off from the question of how decisions should be made about the development of nuclear technology in a developing country such as South Africa. It seems as if questions like these take us into the area of idealism, utopianism and aspirational thinking, and that they therefore should not be taken seriously in deliberations about nuclear technology. Our argument in this regard, however, is that these questions cannot be ignored in public decision-making about nuclear energy in South Africa today.They form part of an essential framework of considerations that fundamentally shape the way in which we think about nuclear power and its manageme nt and regulation. This framework has to do with our basic ideas about science and technology, about what we can know, what we ought to do, and what 19 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. e can hope to achieve in the future. This general framework of cultural ideals has to do with what we think of ourselves as human beings, and even what a meaningful life on this earth is, or could entail. As such, this framework provides us with a long-term vision against the background of which we articulate our aspirations and make our plans for the future of ourselves and our children. Without an explicit awareness and a constant critical questioning of this broad framework of cultural ideals, humankind would be like a ship on the open se as that has lost its orientation, drifting aimlessly going nowhere.It is therefore essential that the content and the substance of this framework of deep cultural assumptions is also explicated in decision-making about nuclear technology – albeit in a rudimentary form. Recommendation 6 General formulation Decision-makers about nuclear technology should familiarize themselves with the different answers and kinds of answers that have been given in the socio-political debate about nuclear technology on the radical questions with which the development and application of nuclear technology confronts us (such as: who are we as humans and where are we going in this world with our knowledge and technology).Specific formulation Decision-makers should familiarize themselves with the reasons and justifications given for the different answers provided in the socio-political debate about nuclear technology on the radical framework questions conjured up by the development and application o f nuclear technology. Application When decision-makers decide about any development or application of nuclear energy, they should be able to explain in public why they give precedence to a certain position in the broad socio-political debate on the radical framework questions referred to above, and why that particular position is better than another.Recommendation 7 Granted that the conversation of humankind about the radical framework questions referred to above is incomplete and unending, and that we therefore cannot postpone decision-making about a particular proposal about nuclear technology indefinitely, decision-makers at least have the obligation to show that (a) they are aware of the existence of this conversation, (b) that they are aware that they are implicitly contributing to the substance of this conversation 20 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002.Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethi cs, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. by the choice that they will make, and (c) that they, in the choice that they make, do not foreclose the outcome of that conversation or undermine the conditions for its continuation. 4. 2 The nuclear debate in Western Europe It would be difficult to give an overview of the nuclear debate in Western Europe in terms of distinct historical phases (as it has been done in the case of the USA, and as it will be done in the case of South Africa).The reason for this is that different countries in Western Europe have had different exposures to, and therefore different responses to nuclear technology and its applications. However, what is similar in Europe to the history of the nuclear debate in the USA, is that the capacity for nuclear power generation for civilian purposes was developed during the 1950s, and that most of it was established, albeit against certain levels of public opposition and protest, during the 1960s. In this history, the same issues of official secrecy and government imposition were also experienced (Welsh 2000: 13-15).During the late 1960s and the early 1970s, strong and vocal opposition to nuclear power swept through the whole of Europe, coinciding with the New Left revolution on university campuses, although this didn't represent the attitudes of the majority of the population in most of the West European countries. In some countries, this opposition succeeded to halt any further development of nuclear power generation capacity (for example in the Netherlands in 1974); or to prevent any nuclear power generation capacity to be established at all (Denmark).In some, for instance in the United Kingdom, the anti-nuclear movement only really got off the ground in the late 1970s and early 1980s. In other countries such as France and Belgium, this opposition proved to have no effect at all on the respective country's nuclear power programme. An important fact in the interpretation of the nuclear debate in Europe, is that its intensity, which is much higher than that in the USA, can be linked to the Europeans' direct experience of warfare in their continent, and to he fact that nuclear weapon installations were deployed throughout Western Europe in close proximity to large masses of population in the era after the Second World War (Snow and Benford 1988: 209). With the constant threat of nuclear war, a strong anti-nuclear movement that is not only opposed to nuclear weapons but also to nuclear power generation emerged in Western Europe, although its history and success differs from country to country.In the Netherlands and Denmark, the position of the antinuclear movement was that nuclear energy is both dangerous and unnecessary, and this view has become the dominant viewpoint among the general public, the news media, and a majority of the political parties. In Germany, however, no clear winner h as emerged from the debate between pro-nuclear and anti-nuclear positions – the fight for supremacy continues. 21 Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002.Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. On the other hand, France is the best example in Europe of a country in which the antinuclear movement has lost the debate and has been marginalized by a discourse that emphasizes the safety of the national nuclear industry and the necessity of nuclear power as a guarantee for economic independence and as a source of national grandeur (Koopmans and Duyvendak 1994: 11; Welsh 2000: 18, 21).It is furthermore significant to note that public opposition to nuclear energy in Europe (recorded in attitude surveys in distinction from open protest behaviour) significantly increased t hroughout Europe after the Chernobyl disaster of April 1986, with the exception of France and Belgium where opposition decreased. In countries such as the United Kingdom, Italy and Denmark in which a majority of people in 1978 thought that nuclear energy was worthwhile to pursue, significant shifts of opinion took place when the figures of 1987 just after the Chernobyl disaster are taken into account.In the United Kingdom, Italy and Denmark, a majority of the public assumed an anti-nuclear energy stance in 1987. In the UK, the shift in opinion was 33%, while in Italy a massive 70% shift was registered, while the shift in Denmark was a substantive 52% (Koopmans and Duyvendak 1994: 12). The Chernobyl disaster of April 1986 also led to a very interesting pattern in the revival of anti-nuclear protest in Western Europe. In a study completed by Koopmans in 1992, it was found that only Germany experienced a spectacular rise in the number of anti-nuclear protest events.In France and Switze rland only a small increase took place, and in the Netherlands no change was detectable. The same pattern emerged when the volume of participation in these events was taken into account. Where Germany saw a substantive increase in the number of protesters, no increases on this level was experienced in the Netherlands and France. A significant increase in the number of protesters was registered in Switzerland though, although not as high as that of Germany (Koopmans en Duyvendak 1994: 4-6).The reaction of politicians and the general public (in distinction from protesters) affirm how wide definitions and interpretations of similar events can differ. For example, in Germany, several state and local governments prohibited the consumption of fresh vegetables, closed children's playgrounds and swimming pools and even cancelled sports events. None of this happened in France: On one side of a Rhine Bridge, at Kehl, in West Germany, the children were forbidden to play on the grass and the le ttuces sat uneaten in the ground.On the French side of the bridge, around Strassbourg, very similar lettuces were declared harmless (Hawkes et al: 1986: 154, quoted in Koopmans and Duyvendak 1994: 7). How can this be explained? According to Koopmans and Duyvendak (1994) these differences have to do with differences in the level of mobilization of protest against nuclear power in a country, and pursuant to that differences in the public image of nuclear power in the public 22Report on Value issues in decision-making about nuclear power generation. Final Version: 15 March 2002. Prepared for Afrosearch by the Unit for Environmental Ethics, University of Stellenbosch. This Report consists of 98 pages in total, including the Executive Summary , Bibliography and Addendas. consciousness of a country. In Germany for instance, the Chernobyl disaster occurred within a period in which public protest against nuclear power was already at a high level and well organized.Public protest was already mobilized during 1985 against a nuclear reprocessing plant in Wackersdorf, Bavaria, so that the Chernobyl disaster only provided further impetus to a movement that was already up and running. This impetus was further supported by the antinuclear stance of a number of German political parties. In the Netherlands however, the antinuclear movement almost came to a standstill after its campaign to close its two existing nuclear power plants failed in 1981.Similarly, the anti-nuclear movement in France was reduced to marginal proportions after the Socialists took office in 1981 (Koopmans and Duyvendak 1994: 7-8). The significance of t